VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE IMPROVING STUDENTS’ DICTIONARY SKILLS: AN ACTION RESEARCH STUDY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS A thesis submitted to the Faculty of English Linguistics & Literature in partial fulfillment of the Master’s degree in TESOL By NGUYỄN KIM VŨ BẢO Supervised by Nguyễn Nhã Trân, PhD HO CHI MINH CITY, APRIL 2020 Table of contents Table of contents .............................................................................................................................. i Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ v Statement of candidate .................................................................................................................... vi Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ vii List of tables .................................................................................................................................. viii List of figures .................................................................................................................................. ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1 1.1. Background to the study ........................................................................................................... 2 1.2. Aims of the study ..................................................................................................................... 5 1.3. Research questions ................................................................................................................... 5 1.4. Significance of the study .......................................................................................................... 6 1.5. Organization of the study ......................................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................... 8 2.1. The dictionary .......................................................................................................................... 9 2.1.1. Definitions and classifications .......................................................................................... 9 2.1.2. Structure ........................................................................................................................... 9 2.1.3. Contents .......................................................................................................................... 10 2.1.4. Research ......................................................................................................................... 11 2.2. Dictionary use ........................................................................................................................ 13 2.2.1. The dictionary user ......................................................................................................... 13 2.2.2. Dictionary use situations and purposes .......................................................................... 13 2.2.3. Dictionary consultation process ..................................................................................... 15 2.3. Dictionary skills ..................................................................................................................... 18 2.3.1. Definitions ...................................................................................................................... 18 2.3.2. Specifications ................................................................................................................. 18 2.3.2.1. Dictionary structures ............................................................................................ 18 2.3.2.2. Stages of the consultation process ........................................................................ 19 2.3.2.3. Dictionary typology .............................................................................................. 21 2.3.2.4. Users’ language proficiency ................................................................................. 24 2.3.3. Assessment ..................................................................................................................... 25 2.3.3.1. Dictionary skills testing ........................................................................................ 25 2.3.3.2. Student’s self-assessment of dictionary skills ...................................................... 30 2.3.3.3. Issues in dictionary skills assessment ................................................................... 30 i 2.4. Why need to improve students’ dictionary skills? ................................................................. 32 2.4.1. Dictionaries play a central role in language learning ..................................................... 32 2.4.2. Using a dictionary is not easy ......................................................................................... 32 2.4.3. Students indeed lack dictionary skills ............................................................................ 33 2.5. How to improve students’ dictionary skills? .......................................................................... 34 2.5.1. The lexicographical triangle: The role of the teacher ..................................................... 34 2.5.2. Recommendations from the literature ............................................................................ 35 2.5.2.1. Teach students dictionary skills............................................................................ 35 2.5.2.2. Improve dictionary culture ................................................................................... 40 2.5.3. Previous research on improving students’ dictionary skills ........................................... 41 2.6. Research gap .......................................................................................................................... 44 2.7. Summary ................................................................................................................................ 45 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................. 46 3.1. Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 47 3.1.1. The interpretivist paradigm and qualitative inquiry ....................................................... 47 3.1.2. Practitioner research ....................................................................................................... 48 3.1.3. Action research ............................................................................................................... 50 3.1.3.1. Definitions ............................................................................................................ 51 3.1.3.2. Underlying assumptions ....................................................................................... 52 3.1.3.3. Action research ‘cycles’ and ‘models’ ................................................................. 54 3.1.3.4. Quality criteria ...................................................................................................... 57 3.2. Research design ...................................................................................................................... 59 3.2.1. My action research.......................................................................................................... 59 3.2.2. Cycle 1: Getting to know the situation ........................................................................... 61 3.2.2.1. Area of focus ........................................................................................................ 61 3.2.2.2. Data collection ...................................................................................................... 62 3.2.2.3. Data analysis and interpretation ........................................................................... 66 3.2.2.4. Action plan 1 ........................................................................................................ 68 3.2.2.5. Cycle 1 model ....................................................................................................... 69 3.2.3. Cycle 2: Evaluating the intervention .............................................................................. 69 3.2.3.1. Area of focus ........................................................................................................ 69 3.2.3.2. Data collection ...................................................................................................... 70 3.2.3.3. Data analysis and interpretation ........................................................................... 73 3.2.3.4. Action plan 2 ........................................................................................................ 74 3.2.3.5. Cycle 2 model ....................................................................................................... 74 ii 3.3. Research site ........................................................................................................................... 74 3.4. Participants ............................................................................................................................. 75 3.5. Ethical considerations ............................................................................................................ 76 3.6. Summary ................................................................................................................................ 80 CHAPTER 4: THE FIRST CYCLE AND INTERVENTION ................................................ 81 4.1. Findings .................................................................................................................................. 82 4.1.1. Students’ perceptions of dictionary use .......................................................................... 82 4.1.2. Students’ practices of dictionary use .............................................................................. 87 4.2. Discussion .............................................................................................................................. 93 4.3. Action plan of Cycle 1 ........................................................................................................... 96 4.4. Intervention ............................................................................................................................ 97 4.4.1. Teaching dictionary skills to the students....................................................................... 98 4.4.2. Integrating dictionary use into class activities .............................................................. 101 4.4.3. Modifications of the intervention plan and other decisions along the way .................. 103 4.5. Summary .............................................................................................................................. 104 CHAPTER 5: THE SECOND CYCLE ................................................................................... 105 5.1. Findings ................................................................................................................................ 106 5.1.1. Effectiveness of materials and activities used in the intervention ................................ 106 5.1.2. The teaching of the 10 skills in the intervention .......................................................... 108 5.1.3. Changes in students’ perceptions and practices of dictionary use................................ 111 5.1.3.1. Changes in students’ perceptions of dictionary use ........................................... 112 5.1.3.2. Changes in students’ practices of dictionary use ................................................ 114 5.1.4. Students’ suggestions about the intervention ............................................................... 120 5.2. Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 120 5.3. Action plan of Cycle 2 ......................................................................................................... 123 5.4. Summary .............................................................................................................................. 125 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION ................................................................................................. 126 6.1. Summary of the study .......................................................................................................... 127 6.1.1. Findings of the two cycles ............................................................................................ 127 6.1.2. Contributions of the study ............................................................................................ 127 6.1.3. How I have changed through this research ................................................................... 128 6.2. Limitations of the study........................................................................................................ 129 6.3. Recommendations and suggestions for further research ...................................................... 130 6.4. Updates ................................................................................................................................. 130 iii REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 132 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................... 141 CYCLE 1 APPENDIX 1: Preliminary Test of dictionary skills .............................................................. 142 APPENDIX 2: Preliminary Questionnaire .............................................................................. 145 APPENDIX 3: Preliminary Interview ..................................................................................... 149 APPENDIX 4: Sample entries in my Research Journal .......................................................... 150 APPENDIX 5: Complete data from Part 4 of Preliminary Questionnaire .............................. 151 INTERVENTION APPENDIX 6: Eighteen dictionary skills omitted from the action plan of Cycle 1 ............... 152 APPENDIX 7: Sample dictionary skill lesson ........................................................................ 154 APPENDIX 8: A post on the class Facebook group related to dictionary skills..................... 157 APPENDIX 9: Some dictionary-related questions in the end-of-course games ..................... 158 APPENDIX 10: Dictionaries and other language learning materials available in the library 159 CYCLE 2 APPENDIX 11: Evaluative Test of dictionary skills .............................................................. 160 APPENDIX 12: Evaluative Questionnaire .............................................................................. 163 APPENDIX 13: Evaluative Interview ..................................................................................... 166 APPENDIX 14: Student feedback form .................................................................................. 168 iv Abstract This thesis recounts my journey as a teacher undertaking practitioner research. Using a first-person narrative style, it reports a two-cycle qualitative action research study which I conducted to improve my students’ dictionary skills. In the first cycle, I investigated my students’ perceptions and practices regarding their dictionary use, using data from the Preliminary Test of dictionary skills, Questionnaire, Interview, and my Research Journal. I found that my students were using a variety of dictionaries, among which the most popular and frequently used were phone-based and online products. They generally appreciated the roles of dictionaries in their learning but had not had proper instructions on how to use them. By analyzing the problems that they were having, I determined 10 dictionary skills that the students needed to learn most based on Nesi’s (1999) specification and taught these skills in an intervention afterward. In the second cycle, I evaluated this intervention in terms of the effectiveness of the materials and activities I used, the teaching of the 10 dictionary skills, the changes in my students’ perceptions and practices of dictionary use after the intervention, and their suggestions and comments about the intervention. With data from the Evaluative Test of dictionary skills, Questionnaire, Interview and my Research Journal, I found that my students benefited most from learning Stage-2 skills in Nesi’s (1999) specification, and that they appreciated the materials and activities I used, particularly the explanations, slides and handouts. The students also made positive changes in their perceptions and practices of dictionary use after the intervention and offered valuable suggestions to improve my teaching practices. Keywords: dictionary skills, dictionary use, ESP, students’ perceptions and practices v Statement of candidate I hereby certify that the work in this thesis entitled ‘Improving students’ dictionary skills: An action research study at the University of Transport and Communications’ has not been previously accepted for the award of any other degree to any other university or educational institution. I also certify that this thesis presents my original research and has been written solely by me. Any assistance and support that I have received towards the completion of this thesis has been duly acknowledged. Finally, I certify that all the material used in the thesis is clearly indicated. …………………………………………… Nguyễn Kim Vũ Bảo (166014011106) April 2020 vi Acknowledgements The completion of this thesis could not have been possible without the assistance and encouragement of so many people I was fortunate to meet. Their invaluable contributions are sincerely appreciated and gratefully acknowledged. First and foremost, I wish to sincerely thank my supervisor, Dr. Nguyễn Nhã Trân, for her generous and insightful guidance. Without her timely encouragement, I would not even have chosen the thesis track, which turned out to bring me on this wonderful journey. Besides being a supervisor, she has always been a close friend of mine through the ups and downs of my life. I always feel blessed to be one of her students. I would like to thank the Department of English of the University of Transport and Communications (UTC), especially Ms. Hà Thị Thanh and Ms. Trần Thị Thanh Loan, for the support they have given me during this MA course. My heartfelt appreciation also goes to the UTC Library staff for letting me hold the library orientation session, to the Registrar’s Office for rescheduling my courses so that I could conduct this research. I also thank my beloved students, whose curiosity and enthusiasm have always motivated me to be a better teacher. Thank you my friends of the class MA 2016A and ‘Team Thesis’, especially ‘Má Châu’, ‘Chị Huyền’, Duyên, Phúc, Diễm and Anne. You all have made my life so fun and meaningful in ways I could never have expected. Thank you my old friend Điềm for helping me organize my data. My final thoughts are to my Mom and Dad, to whom I am indebted for everything I have achieved in my life. vii List of tables Table 2.1 Learning activities generally associated with dictionary use ........................................... 14 Table 2.2 Purposes for dictionary use in language learning ............................................................ 14 Table 2.3 Nesi’s (1999) specification of dictionary reference skills in higher education ................ 20 Table 2.4 Engelberg and Lemnitzer’s (2009) search techniques in electronic dictionaries ............. 22 Table 2.5 Pastor and Alcina’s (2010) search options in electronic dictionaries .............................. 23 Table 2.6 Lew’s (2013b) specification of dictionary skills .............................................................. 23 Table 2.7 Dictionary skills rubric for level B1 (CEFR) ................................................................... 24 Table 2.8 Dictionary skills tested in the Okayama project (1985) ................................................... 26 Table 2.9 Specifications of the Dictionary Research Test (Atkins & Varantola, 1998) .................. 27 Table 2.10 Dictionary skills tested in Lew and Galas (2008) .......................................................... 29 Table 3.1 Goals of action research and quality criteria .................................................................... 58 Table 3.2 Cycle 1: Research questions aligned with data collection tools ...................................... 62 Table 3.3 Brief descriptions of data collection tools of Cycle 1 ...................................................... 63 Table 3.4 Cycle 2: Research questions aligned with data collection tools ...................................... 70 Table 3.5 Brief descriptions of data collection tools of Cycle 2 ...................................................... 71 Table 4.1 Cycle 1: Ten dictionary skills with highest means in Questionnaire Part 4 ..................... 85 Table 4.2 Cycle 1: Mean values of Stage-2 skills in Questionnaire Part 4 ...................................... 86 Table 4.3 Cycle 1: Students’ problems when using dictionaries in the Preliminary Test................ 91 Table 4.4 Ten dictionary skills students needed to learn most......................................................... 95 Table 4.5 Action plan of Cycle 1 ..................................................................................................... 96 Table 4.6 Intervention: Dictionary skills teaching contents integrated into course syllabus ........... 99 Table 4.7 Intervention: Activities and procedures of the dictionary skills lessons ........................100 Table 5.1 Cycle 2: Usefulness of the materials and activities used in the intervention .................106 Table 5.2 Cycle 2: Usefulness of the skills taught in the intervention ...........................................109 Table 5.3 Cycle 1 vs. Cycle 2: Number of dictionaries in total vs. used most frequently .............115 Table 5.4 Cycle 1 vs. Cycle 2: Number and results of dictionary consultations ...........................117 Table 5.5 Cycle 1 vs. Cycle 2: Students’ problems when using dictionaries ................................118 viii List of figures Figure 2.1 An entry in the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (8th edition) ............................. 11 Figure 2.2 Practical and theoretical directions of lexicography ........................................................ 11 Figure 2.3 The decision-making process in dictionary consultation for comprehension .................. 17 Figure 2.4 Factors in dictionary skills assessment ............................................................................ 31 Figure 2.5 The lexicographical triangle: Stakeholders in improving dictionary skills ..................... 35 Figure 3.1 The Dialectic Action Research Spiral .............................................................................. 55 Figure 3.2 Research outline ............................................................................................................... 60 Figure 3.3 Specific themes of Cycle 1 research questions ................................................................ 61 Figure 3.4 A student’s notes of dictionary use showing three types of consultation results ............ 67 Figure 3.5 Cycle 1 model .................................................................................................................. 69 Figure 3.6 Specific themes of Cycle 2 research question ................................................................. 70 Figure 3.7 Cycle 2 model .................................................................................................................. 74 Figure 4.1 Cycle 1: Type and number of dictionaries reported in total vs. most frequently used .... 87 Figure 4.2 Cycle 1: Types of dictionary consultations...................................................................... 89 Figure 4.3 Intervention: Course timeline showing research and teaching progress.......................... 97 Figure 5.1 Cycle 2: Type and number of dictionaries reported in total vs. most frequently used ..114 ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step. (Lao Tzi) A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step. But in many cases, we did not know in the first place what journey that single first step would take us on, nor did (or will) we know where our journey would bring us. Sometimes we did not even know which step it was, first or last. A single step might, therefore, end up beginning a journey of a thousand miles. The research that I am about to recount in this thesis is one example. My interest in improving students’ dictionary skills is in the spotlight of this work, but it has been here in me for a while, since a time I now frankly cannot remember. And it will certainly be there, for who knows how long. Taken this way, this work is just a polished, convenient extract of a much longer and messy story of how I have been trying to help my students improve their dictionary skills, told from my perspective as a language learner, a dictionary user, a teacher, and a researcher. As I will explain more clearly in Chapter 3, choosing the action research design for a master’s thesis seemed an ambitious and risky decision for me, given the fact that this research would be among the first of its kind at the Faculty. Perhaps even more so was the first-person narrative style that I decided to use to write up this thesis (see Elliott, 2005, for the use of narrative in research). These important decisions, as well as many others, were methodologically strategic. To a certain extent, they also reflected my eagerness to try something new. After all, once one has determined to embark on an adventure, why not choose a less trodden path? 1 1.1. Background to the study Me and my dictionaries I was seven when my family moved from Khánh Hòa to Đồng Nai in 1996. We settled in a remote area in Xuân Lộc, where I lived until I went to college in 2007. The first dictionaries that I knew were the ones I found in a wooden cupboard in the living room. There were five of them, I remember, all thick, old, and often dusty. My favorite one was a Sino-Vietnamese dictionary, which had beautiful pictures and strange-looking characters in it1. Like other kids at that time, I started learning English in my sixth grade. Around that year, my mother bought me a dictionary2. I was not particularly interested in the book then. I cannot even recall the moment my mother gave it to me. Yet that first dictionary was to be so important to me, at least for the next six years. Looking back, I think it was that ‘single step’ that began my journey of learning English. And I am grateful to my mother for that. English became one of my favorite subjects at secondary school. I began to use my dictionary more and more over the years, so much that my mother once had to use duct tape to toughen the spine of the book for fear that too much use would tear it apart. It became my second teacher, always there by my side, 24/7. Interestingly, I felt that I was being more independent and proactive in my learning. Above all, I knew that I was making great progress, and that I was having a lot of joy. I bought myself a new dictionary in my first year at college. It was the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (7th edition), the dream of many students at that time. I was not disappointed. In fact, I cannot imagine going through those four years without it. I learned so much from it! And not just me, many friends of mine also had their dictionaries with them all the time. So did some of our teachers. One teacher I met in my second year proudly told us that she had had her dictionary for years, and that it was still useful. Another I met in a course on translation said that: “If you don’t understand a word, look it up in a dictionary. If you still don’t understand, look it up in another dictionary. And yet another, if necessary.” As I recalled such memories to write this passage, I suddenly realized that, as successful language learners, we teachers are all deeply indebted to those early dictionaries3. 1 The others were English, French, Latin and Vietnamese dictionaries. These had been my father’s dictionaries when he studied languages at college. Regrettably, they were all destroyed by termites a few years later. 2 It was an English-English-Vietnamese dictionary by Trần Hồng Phúc (2000). The book has been republished many times since then but keeps its distinctive red cover, which brings back pleasant memories whenever I see it in a bookstore. 3 I believe many of us share these memories. Nguyen, H. C. (2017), for example, narrated passionately how a monolingual dictionary transformed his learning. 2 As a student of language, I loved dictionaries. I loved the scent and touch of the paper, I was amazed at the hidden wisdom, and I admired the meticulous work of the compilers. Dictionaries enabled learning beyond classroom walls. They made me feel confident, autonomous, responsible and happy in my learning. Expectations meet reality I became a teacher in late 2011 and have been teaching English at a small university since then. As a teacher, I began to take up new roles and responsibilities, but my beliefs about the position of dictionaries in language learning did not changed much. In some way, my personal experience with dictionaries led me to expect that my students would use a dictionary like I used to. And I assumed that they already knew how to use their dictionary. “It’s not rocket science,” I thought. However, my observations gradually revealed a different story. When I asked students to bring their dictionaries to class, I was disappointed to know that most of them did not have any dictionary at all. Those few who did have one appeared to be struggling with every word they looked up, as if it was the first time they opened it. Most of them did not get what they wanted from their dictionaries. They were wasting a wonderful learning resource. In recent years, more students have a dictionary on their cell phone4. There are also online dictionaries, which can be accessed easily from their personal devices. These handheld electronic resources allow students to locate a word in seconds. But wait, most of my students still cannot get the right thing from their dictionary! I am sure there is something not right. But I do not know what it is. What do they need? Better dictionaries? More grammar and vocabulary? Dictionary skills? What is going on? What can I do?... Such questions have crossed my mind more than once, but they were quickly forgotten amid the everyday realities of the classroom. Theoretical confirmation In 2016, I decided to enroll in a master’s program in TESOL at the University of Social Sciences & Humanities, Vietnam National University – Ho Chi Minh City (USSH, VNU-HCM). The courses of the program provided me with valuable insights about the current issues of my profession. Above all, I began to understand what it meant to ‘do research’, and I wanted to give it a go. About a year later, it was time to choose a topic for my thesis proposal. I was quite sure then that I would do some research into the use of music in the classroom5. But when the writing began, I got stuck. It seemed that I was not ready for it. I was not comfortable and confident in it. 4 Or rather, they have a cell phone that happens to have a dictionary on it? 5 Besides language, I am really into music. I can play piano and guitar quite well. At that time, I was planning to study the effects of background music on students’ performance in speaking activities. 3 I was looking for a new research idea when I noticed how much I had been using dictionaries to help me write up the proposal. At that moment, I thought about my students, about all those unanswered questions that had always been there in the back of my mind. I began to read more research on students’ dictionary use. As I expected, dictionaries are widely believed to play a central role in learning a language (e.g. Cubillo, 2002; East, 2008; Kirkness, 2004). Yet it is not easy to use them. The process of looking up a word turned out to be much more complicated than I had thought. In fact, many studies showed that students did not have the skills and knowledge to use their dictionaries effectively6 (e.g. Carduner, 2003; Chi, 2013; Lew & Galas, 2008; Nesi, 1999, 2013; Nesi & Haill, 2002; Tono, 2001). The more I read, the more I appreciated the position of dictionaries in language learning, the difficulties my students could have, and the well-grounded need to improve their dictionary skills. I felt compelled to do something. A quick review of the literature later suggested that I explicitly teach my students the skills they needed to use their dictionaries better (Nesi, 1999; Tono, 2001; Wingate, 2004). Additionally, I could nurture a dictionary-friendly classroom environment, which would not only benefit my dictionary skills teaching but also help develop the dictionary culture at my institution in the long run (Gouws and Prinsloo, 2012; Lew & Galas, 2008). But what exactly would I have to do? What skills would I teach my students? And how? To answer these questions, I went on to search the literature for reports of previous projects to improve students’ dictionary skills so that I could learn from them. Unfortunately, although researchers had long called for teaching dictionary skills (e.g. Bishop, 2000, 2001; Cubillo, 2015; Nesi, 1999; Tono, 2001; Wingate, 2002, 2004), there had been few such projects ever recorded. In the Vietnamese context, it seemed that no previous studies had been conducted to improve language students’ dictionary skills. Furthermore, very little was known about how Vietnamese students were using their dictionaries, which made it even more difficult for teachers like me to decide what to do to help our students. Therefore, I knew that I had to understand more about my students’ dictionary use before I could improve their dictionary skills. I had the first ideas of an action research study. And that was how my research began. As narrated above, the rationale for this study is threefold: my personal values about dictionaries and learning, my first-hand observations and experiences as a teacher, and theoretical support from the literature. I think there are numerous ways a research project begins. But for me, it started with “a gap between the real world of [my] daily teaching 6 Somehow I managed to teach myself to use dictionaries, but research shows that many students are not that lucky. 4 practices and [my] vision of an ideal one” (Mills, 2011, p. xii). I wanted to understand my students’ dictionary use so that I could do something in my capacity to improve their dictionary skills. This action-oriented approach was the main reason I chose an action-research design. 1.2. Aims of the study The overall aim of action research is to generate contextual knowledge that prompts action to improve the immediate situation (McNiff & Whitehead, 2006; Mills, 2011). In this way, my research generally aims to create local knowledge that can be directly translated into action to improve my students’ dictionary skills. This overall aim has two specific objectives. First, I need to understand the current situation by investigating my students’ perceptions and practices of dictionary use. The knowledge I obtain will guide an intervention program to improve their dictionary skills. Second, I need to evaluate my intervention. This evaluation will show what is working and what is not so that I can further enhance my students’ dictionary skills in the future. These two objectives are the backbones of the two cycles of my research. 1.3. Research questions Like all action researchers, I start with a general question: How do I improve my practice? (McNiff & Whitehead, 2006). In my case, this question is translated into: How do I improve my students’ dictionary use in learning English? But before taking action, I have to know how my students are doing with their dictionaries, particularly their perceptions and practices regarding their dictionary use. These two areas prompt the focus of the two research questions (RQ) for the first cycle: RQ 1.1 What are my students’ perceptions of dictionary use in learning English? Cycle 1: RQ 1.2 What are my students’ practices of dictionary use in learning English? In answering these questions, I can understand the current situation, particularly the problems my students are having in using dictionaries. These problems become the focus of an intervention I implement to improve their dictionary skills. Once I carry out the intervention, it is useful for me to evaluate the impacts of my effort. I want to know if it ‘works’ or not, and what else I can do. This leads me to the research question of the second cycle: Cycle 2: RQ 2 How did the intervention go? It should be noted that these research questions were not carved in stone from the beginning. Rather, they were distilled over time as the focus of my study became clearer and more defined, a distinctive feature of the action research design. 5 1.4. Significance of the study My study is significant in a number of dimensions. On the practical level, it is an on-going data- driven effort to reformulate my personal knowledge of the problem. This informed understanding, being highly relevant, specific and reflective, is then directly translated into solutions to improve my practices. Metaphorically speaking, it is another step forward in my professional development as a reflective practitioner (Schön, 1983). This study is equally significant to my participants, who are also my students, in that they have had an opportunity to further develop their dictionary skills. Although their actual improvement might be, as shown in a following chapter, rather humble and preliminary, it clearly shows how my learning and improved practice can positively influence their learning (McNiff & Whitehead, 2006). The power of action research is not in its generalizability but rather, in “the relevance of the findings to the researcher or the audience of the research” (Mills, 2011, p. 114). In this way, the reader of this thesis will benefit not only from the insights and solutions, but also from the frustration and challenges that I recounted as long as they can identify with my setting. This transferability, among other attributes, constitutes the “trustworthiness” of an action research study (Mills, 2011, p. 104) and is achieved through detailed descriptions of the contexts, activities and events (Stringer, 2007). On the theoretical level, action research is in contrast with applied research in that it looks for “a theory for practice rather than a theory of practice” (Burns, 2010, p. 14, original emphasis). From this epistemological standpoint, my study contributes to the knowledge of the field, firstly, through the personal theories I have developed for my own teaching and learning. Secondly, it adds to the literature a richly descriptive case, with an in-depth understanding characterizing its interpretivist paradigm. Finally, the action research design combined with a first-person narrative style of writing offers a relatively new perspective in the landscape of ELT research in Vietnam. To my knowledge, this is one of the first of its kind to be conducted for a master’s degree in TESOL at the Faculty of English Linguistics and Literature, USSH, VNU-HCM. 1.5. Organization of the study Although my thesis has all the required components of a typical master’s thesis, it does not strictly follow the standard five-chapter structure recommended by the Faculty. More specifically, I will present the findings of my research in, not one, but two separate chapters to accentuate the two action research cycles. This is a risky decision, but it allows me to organize my ideas more clearly, as well as to be more faithful to the course of action I took when doing this research. 6 Chapter 1 is an introduction, setting the background for my study. Here I also present the aims and significance of the study, the research questions, and the structure of my thesis. In Chapter 2, I will review the existing literature about dictionary use in language teaching and learning, with the aim of exploring ways to improve my students’ dictionary skills. Chapter 3 will focus on the methodology employed in the study. I will describe in detail the research design and research questions, the participants, the instruments for collecting data, and the procedures for collecting and analyzing these data. In Chapter 4, I will report the findings of the first cycle. These findings are the foundation of an intervention to improve my students’ dictionary skills. Chapter 5 will follow with the findings of the second cycle, which attempts to evaluate the intervention. Finally, Chapter 6 will summarize the findings and contributions of the study, followed by my last reflections on how I have grown in my profession through this study. Then I will discuss the limitations of my study before offering some practical recommendations and suggestions for further research. As you reach these lines, you might have noticed that I am writing my thesis in a much more personal and expressive tone than what is usually expected in a master’s thesis at the Faculty. This chapter, for example, started with an intimate first-person narrative of how my research took shape. Except in Chapter 2, where I tend to sound more distant in my writing, all the following chapters will keep this tone to different degrees. This is an important methodological decision, which I will explain fully in Chapter 3. In one way, it has turned my writing into an enjoyable experience, which makes me believe that reading this work will also be an enjoyable experience to you. 7 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW Wherever languages are used and wherever languages are taught and learned, especially in educational settings, dictionaries play a central role. (Kirkness, 2004, p. 65) The dictionary has a long and fascinating history. Since thousands of years ago, dictionaries have been made and used in all corners of the globe, making them arguably the most common type of reference works. When it comes to language teaching and learning, the role of dictionaries is simply beyond dispute. Perhaps because of their prevalence, however, their use is often taken for granted by both teachers and learners. In this chapter, I am taking a step backwards to appreciate one of the most important resources in language teaching and learning. I want to understand what dictionaries are and how they are used by language learners, with the aim of exploring ways to improve my students’ dictionary skills. 8 2.1. The dictionary 2.1.1. Definitions and classifications A dictionary is a resource that “allows humans to store and retrieve information relatively easily and rapidly” (Hartmann & James, 1998, p. 117). In layman’s terms, they are basically books or electronic resources that list the words of a language (often alphabetically) and give their meanings and/or their equivalents in another language. In the context of this thesis, unless otherwise indicated, the term dictionary refers to dictionaries of the English language, in their full range of variations, which can be used by learners of English. People have long been interested in making dictionaries, with the oldest known ones dating back to 2300 B.C.E. However, it was not until the 17th century that the first English dictionaries were printed (Osselton, 2009). Nowadays, there are so many kinds of dictionaries that their classifications are becoming extremely complicated. Common criteria to distinguish dictionary types are size (e.g. unabridged, gem), coverage (e.g. general, specialized), medium (e.g. print, electronic), language (e.g. monolingual, bilingual, multilingual) and user type (e.g. scholarly, learner’s, translator’s) (Hartmann & James, 1998, p. 147). Some researchers suggested describing dictionaries with a “set of properties” rather than trying to put them into distinct classes (Atkins & Rundell, 2008, p. 26). Such typological complexity can pose challenges for dictionary users, especially language learners. With the sheer abundance of dictionaries available, they might be confused as to which to choose for their purpose. On the other hand, they might not be aware that there are dictionaries which could better cater for their needs. 2.1.2. Structure The dictionary structure refers to the component parts of a dictionary in terms of its overall design (macrostructure) and contents of the entry (microstructure). The macrostructure is the overall “list structure”, which allows the user to locate information in a dictionary (Hartmann & James, 1998, p. 91). One of the most basic macrostructural conventions in English dictionaries, for example, is the alphabetical ordering of headwords7. The microstructure is the internal structure of an entry. It is how a dictionary selects and displays the contents of a headword (usually its spelling, pronunciation and meanings). Dictionaries vary considerably not only in the amount of information they provide for an entry, but also in how this information is presented (Hartmann & James, 1998). 7 Yet even for this basic principle, further strategic decisions are frequently to be made, especially in the case of compounds, idioms and derivatives. Alternatively, entries can be listed thematically, phonologically, or by frequency. 9 Although less frequently, lexicographers are also interested in the megastructure and mediostructure of a dictionary. The former refers to the totality of the component parts of a reference work, including the macrostructure and the ‘outside matter’, i.e. the front matter and appendices. The latter, also known as the cross-reference structure, refers to the network of cross- references which allows users to locate information that spreads over different parts of a dictionary (Hartmann & James, 1998). Efficient dictionary use requires adequate understanding of these structures. Arguably, knowledge of the microstructure is critical since it is at this level that users spend most of their time with and get the most from a dictionary (Tono, 2001). In addition, microstructural conventions are highly complicated and vary greatly across dictionary-makers, which could make it challenging for users to cope with. Although not as important, knowledge of the mediostructure is also necessary because cross- references are extensively used in most dictionaries, whether paper or electronic (Hartmann & James, 1998). Understanding of the megastructure and macrostructure is less useful. This is even more true in electronic dictionaries, where the burden of locating information, which typically demands megastructural and macrostructural knowledge, has been virtually removed thanks to the use of type-in search boxes and hyperlinks (Lew, 2013a, 2013b). 2.1.3. Contents From a megastructural perspective, there are three parts to a dictionary: the front matter, the body, and the appendices. The front matter typically includes the title page, table of contents, preface, user’s guide, phonetic symbols and abbreviations used in the dictionary. Appendices may be various and even non-lexical, covering almost anything the compiler considers helpful for the target user, such as abbreviations, map of the world, measurement units, punctuation rules. Some dictionaries also have additional pages in the middle called ‘middle matter’. In fact, there are no hard and fast rules about these ‘outside’ matters. It is a matter of choice by the compiler (Jackson, 2002). The body of a dictionary contains a systematic list of headwords. Each headword is explained with some information, which, together with the headword, constitutes an entry8. These entries “represent the particular selection of vocabulary and other items that the editors have decided merit inclusion, given the size and purpose of the dictionary” (Jackson, 2002, p. 25). Most of the information a dictionary provides is organized under the microstructure of the entry. The type and amount of this information will vary across dictionaries, but will usually include a word’s spelling, 8 Also called a ‘reference unit’. 10